Introduction
Materials and methods
Participants
Design
Procedure
VR mindfulness intervention
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VR-environment 1: Training the mind and savouring exercise The participant is asked to focus attention on their visual channel and their bodily sensations while observing how the leaves of a tree fall and how a lemon appears and floats continuously. The scenario takes place in a mindful walking environment (duration: 7′32″).
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VR-environment 2. Body scanning exercise This exercise consists of a guided body scan with visual support. The participant is instructed to become aware of their bodily sensations while different parts of the body of a virtual human figure are highlighted by means of blue bubbles (duration: 7′32″).
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VR-environment 3: Mindful observation exercise The participant is asked to focus attention on several elements of the natural landscape while walking. At a certain point, the participant will encounter a bonfire in the landscape that will be used to explain the concept of the ‘figure of the observer of thoughts’. This concept involves observing one’s own thoughts without being trapped by them, and it is represented by the smoke of the bonfire as it dissipates (duration: 8′22″).
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VR-environment 4: Compassionate coping in a difficult situation In the first part of the exercise, the participant is asked to identify and mentally recreate a situation from the past few weeks or months in which they experienced a negative emotion or discomfort. In the second part, the participant is instructed to accept and let go of the emotion that arose from that difficult situation. This is represented by dolphins swimming in the sea. The scenario is set in a wide ocean (duration: 10′).
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VR-environment 5: Breathing in exams The participant is immersed in a situation of examinations taking place at the university. The scenario includes such elements as students talking to each other prior to the exam or reviewing notes. At a certain moment, a member of the teaching staff appears and asks the students to enter the exam room. Once seated, the participant is instructed to carry out a 5-min breathing practice. The participant subsequently takes a virtual exam and can view their results, bringing the exam experience to a close (duration: 10′).
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VR-environment 6: Gratitude exercise In this short exercise, the participant is asked to identify three positive aspects in their life and to show gratitude for them. These three aspects are represented by three geometric figures located in the landscape. This exercise, which is set in a desert scenario, develops thankfulness and the concept of ‘loving kindness’ (duration: 2′40″).
Assessments
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Socio-demographic information socio-demographic data was collected at baseline by means of a questionnaire developed by our team for this study, including sex, age, nationality, relationships (not in a relationship, in a stable relationship), field of study (health-related, social science), academic year, education level (undergraduate, postgraduate) and employment status (employed, not in employment).
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Experience with the use of technologies experience with technologies was measured at baseline with a brief version of the Independent Television Company Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI; Baños et al., 2004; Lessiter et al., 2001). Four items were selected: (1) experience with computers (none, basic, intermediate, expert); (2) knowledge about three-dimensional (3D) images (none, basic, intermediate, expert); (3) knowledge about VR (none, basic, intermediate, expert); (4) frequency of playing videogames (never; occasionally—once or twice a month; frequently—but less than 50% of days; 50% of days or more). This scale was used in a previous study (Navarro-Haro et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2019).
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State mindfulness state mindfulness was measured using an adaptation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS-State; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Cebolla et al., 2013; Soler et al., 2012). It specifically included item numbers 3, 8, 10, 13 and 14, designated by Brown and Ryan (2003) to assess state mindfulness. Each item was rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (‘not at all’) to 6 (‘very much’). Items were reverse scored so that higher scores reflected higher levels of state mindfulness. This five-item shorter scale has been used in previous studies with good internal consistency (Navarro-Haro et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2019). State mindfulness was measured immediately before and after each short VR session. For this study, Cronbach’s alpha values were good (between 0.80 and 0.90) for each use.
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Emotional state a visual analogue scale (VAS; Gross & Levenson, 1995) was applied to assess the intensity of different emotions immediately before and after the VR intervention. A briefer version of the original measure was used, which comprised seven emotion items (happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, anxiety, relaxation/calm, vigour/energy). Participants could choose responses ranging from 1 (‘not feeling the emotion at all’) to 7 (‘feeling the emotion extremely’). This seven-item shorter scale has been successfully used in previous studies (Navarro-Haro et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2019; Riva et al., 2007).
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Sense of presence Sense of presence was measured using three items with a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7. These three items were adapted from the Slater-Usoh-Steed Questionnaire (SUS; Slater et al., 1994). Participants were required to provide a score for each item after each VR session: (1) rate your sense of being in the virtual reality environment (1 = ‘not at all’, 7 = ‘very much’); (2) to what extent were there times during the experience when the computer-generated world became the ‘reality’ for you, and you almost forgot about the ‘real world’ outside? (1 = ‘at no time’, 7 = ‘almost all of the time’); (3) when you think back to the experience, do you think of the virtual reality environment more as images that you saw or more as somewhere you visited? (1 = ‘something I saw’, 7 = ‘somewhere I visited’). The Spanish version was previously used to measure the sense of presence provided by VR, with adequate values of internal consistency (Navarro-Haro et al., 2019). This variable was measured immediately after each short VR session. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha values were from good to excellent (0.80–0.94).
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Treatment Expectation and Satisfaction Scales (adapted from the Credibility/Expectancy Scale by Borkovec & Nau). Participants’ expectations and satisfaction regarding the intervention were measured using five items ranging from 0 (‘not at all’) to 10 (‘very much’) for each scale. The items assessed the complete intervention in terms of the descriptors logical, satisfactory, recommendable, useful and aversive. Participants completed these questionnaires at baseline (expectations scale) and post-intervention (satisfaction scale). This adaptation has been used in previous studies (e.g. ; Quero et al., 2014; Navarro-Haro et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Measures | Pre-intervention assessment | Sessions | Post-intervention assessment | |||||||||||
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Session 1 | Session 2 | Session 3 | Session 4 | Session 5 | Session 6 | |||||||||
Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | |||
Demographic information | X | |||||||||||||
Experience on the use of technologies | X | |||||||||||||
State mindfulness | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
Emotional state | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
Sense of presence: | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
Expectation and Satisfaction Scale | X | X |
Analyses
Results
Participant flow and session attendance
Sociodemographic, and experience using VR systems at baseline
Socio-demographic variables | MBP + VR (n = 93) |
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Sex, n (%) | |
Females | 72 (77.4%) |
Males | 21 (22.6%) |
Age, mean (SD) | 22.86 (6.41) |
Nationality, n (%) | |
Spanish | 87 (93.6%) |
Others | 6 (6.4%) |
Relationships, n (%) | |
No relationship | 46 (49.5%) |
Stable relationship | 47 (50.5%) |
Study area, n (%) | |
Health | 68 (73.1%) |
Social | 25 (26.9%) |
Course, n (%) | |
1‒3 | 73 (78.5%) |
4‒6 | 20 (21.5%) |
Education level, n (%) | |
Undergraduate | 88 (94.6%) |
Postgraduate | 5 (5.4%) |
Employment status, n (%) | |
Employed | 17 (18.3%) |
Not in employment | 76 (81.7%) |
Items | Expert | Intermediate | Basic | None |
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Experience with computers | 11 (11.8%) | 51 (54.8%) | 31 (33.3%) | 0 |
Knowledge about 3D images | 1 (1.08%) | 7 (7.5%) | 35 (37.6%) | 50 (53.8%) |
Knowledge about VR | 1 (1.1%) | 7 (7.5%) | 34 (36.6%) | 51 (54.8%) |
Frequency of playing videogames | 50% of days or more | Frequently | Occasionally | Never |
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5 (5.4%) | 7 (7.5%) | 34 (36.6%) | 47 (50.5%) |
Effects of VR on mindfulness practice
Mindfulness
Emotional state
VR-environment | Comparisons and values | Significant covariables |
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VR1 | Joy (F(1, 81) = 18.70; p < .001; d = − .37; 95% CI − .56, − .19) (↑) Surprise (F(1, 81) = 50.13; p < .001; d = − .90; 95% CI − 1.17, − .64) (↑) Relaxation (F(1, 80.39) = 84.87; p < .001; d = − 1.10; 95% CI − 1.41, − .80) (↑) Sadness (F(1, 81) = 63.04; p < .001; d = .56; 95% CI .39, .73) (↓) Anger (F(1, 81) = 25.70; p < .001; d = .44; 95% CI .24, .64) (↓) Anxiety (F(1, 81) = 42.00; p < .001; d = .64; 95% CI .39, .88) (↓) | |
VR 2 | Surprise (F(1, 80) = 18.75; p < .001; d = − .55; 95% CI − .81, − 30) (↑) Relaxation (F(1, 82.8) = (47.35); p < .001; d = − .83; 95% CI − 1.10, − .56) (↑) Sadness (F(1, 83) = 26.68; p < .001; d = .35; 95% CI .20, .50) (↓) Anger (F (1, 83) = 17.13; p < .001; d = .36; 95% CI .16, 56) (↓) Anxiety (F(1, 83) = 30.38 p < .001; d = .47; 95% CI .28, 66) (↓) | Employment → anxiety (F(1, 80) = 9.263; p < .01) |
VR 3 | Joy (F(1, 76) = 7.41; p < .01; d = − .27; 95% CI − .47, − .06) (↑) Surprise (F(1, 76) = 18.43; p < .001; d = − .68; 95% CI − .95, − .40) (↑) Relaxation (F(1, 76) = 43.72; p < .001; d = − .87; 95% CI − 1.17, − .58) (↑) Sadness (F(1,76) = 15.14; p < .001; d = .28; 95% CI .12, .44) (↓) Anger (F(1, 76) = 17.22; p < .001; d = .36; 95% CI .17, .56) (↓) Anxiety (F(1,76 = 61.21; p < .001; d = .70; 95% CI .48, .92) (↓) | Employment → Anger (F(1, 73) = 6.55; p < .05) → Anxiety (F(1, 73) = 4.79; p < .05) → Relaxation (F(1, 73) = 12.33; p < .01) |
VR 4 | Joy (F(1, 76) = 4.35; p < .05; d = − .23; 95% CI − .42, .03) (↑) Surprise (F(1, 76) = 35.18; p < .001; d = − .94; 95% CI − 1.23, − .65) (↑) Relaxation (F(1, 75.94) = 17.94; p < .001; d = − .68; 95% CI − 1.00, .36) (↑) Sadness (F(1,76 = 17.56; p < .001; d = .38; 95% CI .18, .58) (↓) Anger (F(1, 76) = 9.30; p < .01; d = .27; 95% CI .08, .47) (↓) Anxiety (F(1, 76) = 19.35; p < .001; d = .52; 95% CI .25, .78) (↓) | Employment → Anger (F(1, 73) = 10.15; p < .01) → Anxiety (F(1, 73) = 4.54; p < .05) → Relaxation (F(1, 71.98) = 7.48; p < .01) |
VR 5 | Surprise (F(1,75) = 22.16; p < .001; d = − .60; 95% CI .85, .34) (↑) Relaxation (F(1, 75) = 9.99; p < .01; d = − .41; 95% CI − .68, − .14) (↑) Vigour (F(1, 73.46) = 73,46; p < .01; d = − .25; 95% CI − .43, − .08) (↑) Sadness (F(1, 75) = 9.29; p < .01; d = .26; 95% CI .07, .44) (↓) | Sex → Joy (F(1, 73.07) = 4.933; p < .05) → Relaxation (F(1, 72) = 5.83; p < .05) |
VR 6 | Joy (F (1, 78.47; p < 0,05; d = − .27; 95% CI − .43, − .10) (↑) Surprise (F (1, 78.31 = 5.4; p < .05; d = − .28; 95% CI − .50, − .06) (↑) Relaxation (F (1, 78.82 = 14.82; p < .001; d = − .46; 95% CI − .70, − .22) (↑) Vigour (F (1, 77.67) = 6,67; p < .05; d = − .23; 95% CI − .38, − .08) (↑) | Education → vigour (F(1, 75.85) = 4.06; p < .05) |
Sense of presence
Items | VR 1 | VR 2 | VR 3 | VR 4 | VR 5 | VR 6 |
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M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | |
I had a sense of being there (possible range: X–Y) | 5.29 (1.29) | 4.73 (1.51) | 5.25 (1.43) | 5.16 (1.62) | 5.50 (1.39) | 4.58 (1.64) |
To what extent were there times during the experience when the virtual environment was reality for you? (possible range: X–Y) | 4.74 (1.53) | 4.19 (1.65) | 4.92 (1.66) | 4.73 (1.83) | 5.00 (1.77) | 4.24 (1.78) |
The virtual environment seems to me to be more like something I saw or somewhere I visited (possible range: X–Y) | 4.55 (1.82) | 3.86 (1.73) | 4.58 (1.87) | 4.64 (1.96) | 5.00 (1.73) | 3.95 (1.95) |
Total score (possible range: X–Y) | 4.71 (1.21) | 4.15 (1.35) | 4.78 (1.40) | 4.7 (1.75) | 4.99 (1.46) | 4.2 (1.62) |
VR-environment | Comparisons and values |
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VR1 | > VR 2 (t(73) = 3.72; p < .001; d = .43; 95% CI .13, .74) > VR 6 (t(67) = 2.88; p < .01; d = .36; 95% CI .05, .67) < VR 5 (t(78) = .021; p < .05; d = − .21; 95% CI − .52, .10) |
VR 2 | < VR 3 (t(68) = − 3.04; p < .01; d = .− .46; 95% CI − .77, − .14) < VR 4 (t(70) = − 2.92; p < .01; d = − .35; 95% CI − .66, − .44) < VR 5 (t(69) = − 4.65; p < .001; d = .60; 95% CI − .91, − .28) |
VR 6 | < VR 3 (t(65) = 2.52; p < .05; d = − .37; 95% CI − .69. − .06) < VR 4 (t(67) = 4.553; p < .001; d = − .51; 95% CI − .83, − .19), < VR 5 (t(71) = 2.83; p < .05; d = − .30; 95% CI − .61, .02) |